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World War I
Germany's leadership had hoped for a limited war between Austria-Hungary
and Serbia. But because Russian forces had been mobilized in support of
Serbia, the German leadership made the decision to support its ally. The
Schlieffen Plan, based on the assumption that Germany would face a two-front
war because of a French-Russian alliance, required a rapid invasion through
neutral Belgium to ensure the quick defeat of France. Once the western
front was secure, the bulk of German forces could attack and defeat Russia,
which would not yet be completely ready for war because it would mobilize
its gigantic forces slowly.
Field marshall Hindenburg (left) and general Ludendorff (right)
Despite initial successes, Germany's strategy failed, and its troops
became tied down in trench warfare in France. For the next four years,
there would be little progress in the west, where advances were usually
measured in meters rather than in kilometers. Under the command of Paul
von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, the army scored a number of significant
victories against Russia. But it was only in early 1918 that Russia was
defeated. Even after this victory in the east, however, Germany remained
mired in a long war for which it had not prepared.
Trench Warfare - Grenade catapult in World War I
Germany's war aims were annexationist in nature and foresaw an enlarged
Germany, with Belgium and Poland as vassal states and with colonies in
Africa. In its first years, there was widespread support for the war.
Even the SPD supported it, considering it a defensive effort and voting
in favor of war credits. By 1916, however, opposition to the war had mounted
within the general population, which had to endure many hardships, including
food shortages. A growing number of Reichstag deputies came to demand
a peace without annexations. Frustrated in its quest for peace, in April
1917 a segment of the SPD broke with the party and formed the Independent
Social Democratic Party of Germany. In July the Reichstag passed a resolution
calling for a peace without annexations. In its wake, Chancellor Theobald
von Bethmann Hollweg was forced to resign, and Hindenburg and Ludendorff
came to exercise a control over Germany until late 1918 that amounted
to a virtual military dictatorship.
Military leaders refused a moderate peace because they were convinced
until very late in the war that victory ultimately would be theirs. Another
reason for their insistence on a settlement that fulfilled expansionist
aims was that the government had not financed the war with higher taxes
but with bonds. Taxes had been seen as unnecessary because it was expected
that the government would redeem these bonds after the war with payments
from Germany's vanquished enemies. Thus, only an expansionist victory
would keep the state solvent and save millions of German bondholders from
financial ruin.
Signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk taking Russia out of the war
After the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917, Russia and Germany began
peace negotiations. In March 1918, the two countries signed the Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk. The defeat of Russia enabled Germany to transfer troops
from the eastern to the western front. Two large offensives in the west
were met by an Allied counteroffensive that began in July. German troops
were pressed back, and it became evident to many officers that Germany
could not win the war. In September Ludendorff recommended that Germany
sue for peace. In October extensive reforms democratized the Reichstag
and gave Germany a constitutional monarchy. A coalition of progressive
forces was formed, headed by SPD politician Friedrich Ebert. The military
allowed the birth of a democratic parliament because it did not want to
be held responsible for the inevitable armistice that would end the war
on terms highly unfavorable to Germany. Instead, the civilian government
that signed the truce was to take the blame for the nation's defeat.
The political reforms of October were overshadowed by a popular uprising
that began on November 3 when sailors in Kiel mutinied. They refused to
go out on what they considered a suicide mission against British naval
forces. The revolt grew quickly and within a week appeared to be burgeoning
into a revolution that could well overthrow the established social order.
On November 9, the Kaiser was forced to abdicate, and the SPD proclaimed
a republic. A provisional government headed by Ebert promised elections
for a national assembly to draft a new constitution. In an attempt to
control the popular uprising, Ebert agreed to back the army if it would
suppress the revolt. On November 11, the government signed the armistice
that ended the war. Germany's loses included about 1.6 million dead and
more than 4 million wounded.
The Treaty of Versailles that ended the conflict and imposed huge reperations on Germany
Signed in June 1919, the Treaty of Versailles limited Germany to an army
of 100,000 soldiers. The treaty also stipulated that the Rhineland be
demilitarized and occupied by the western Allies for fifteen years and
that Germany surrender Alsace-Lorraine, northern Schleswig-Holstein, a
portion of western Prussia that became known as the Polish Corridor because
it gave Poland access to the Baltic, and all overseas colonies. Also,
an Allied Reparations Commission was established and charged with setting
the amount of war-damage payments that would be demanded of Germany. The
treaty also included the "war guilt clause," ascribing responsibility
for World War I to Germany and Austria-Hungary.
- Imperial Germany
- Political Parties
- The Economy
and Population Growth
- The Tariff Agreement
of 1879 and Its Social Consequences
- Bismarck's
Foreign Policy
- Foreign
Policy in the Wilhelmine Era
- World War I
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