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Extraparty Political Forces in Germany
German society is highly organized into associations that represent the
occupational, socioeconomic, religious, and recreational interests of
individuals--a tradition that dates back to the corporate guild system
of the Middle Ages. Most Germans belong to at least one voluntary association,
and many belong to several. The vast majority of these organizations (such
as sports clubs) have little political significance, but an important
core of groups combines a strong organizational base with a particular
interest in policy issues. The size of these interest groups varies. Smaller
groups represent subsectors of the population, such as farmers. The large
associations include trade unions, professional associations, and religious
groups. More than 1,000 of these interest groups are registered formally
as lobbyists with the federal government, and hundreds more are active
at the Land level.
The primary interest associations in Germany are organized differently
from interest groups in the United States. The United States offers a
pluralist model of interest groups, in which loosely structured factions
compete within the policy process to represent the same social interests.
The government offers a neutral forum in which these groups vie for influence
on policy. In contrast, many of the major interest associations in Germany
reflect a neocorporatist model of interest articulation that channels
interests into a number of unified, noncompetitive associations.
Four large, national "peak" associations (Spitzenverbaende;
sing., Spitzenverband) represent groups of similar interest associations
as a whole. The labor unions, business, the churches, and the agricultural
lobbying organizations each has its own Spitzenverband. Membership
in one of these peak associations is often mandatory for individuals in
a given social or occupational sector. Most peak associations are also
organized hierarchically, with the national office determining the objectives
and directing the strategy of the association as a whole.
The influence of the interest associations is institutionalized in several
ways. Political parties provide one major channel of influence. Although
the associations eschew formal party ties and claim to remain above partisan
politics--for instance, they do not officially endorse a party at election
time--ties between these associations and the parties are close. To take
one example, the labor unions maintain a highly developed relationship
with the Social Democrats, and a large percentage of SPD party activists
are union members. Another forum for interest group activity is the Bundestag.
The interest associations not only monitor legislation, lobby members,
and testify at hearings, but they also maintain formal affiliations with
deputies. Since 1972, when the Bundestag first started keeping records,
roughly 50 percent of the members reported either being employed by an
interest group or holding an executive position in a group. About 25 percent
of the members are affiliated with economic groups, such as labor unions
or the business lobby, and about 17 percent are affiliated with religious
or cultural associations. Members of key committees such as agriculture,
labor, and education are particularly likely to have ties to the relevant
groups. The government ministries themselves provide yet another means
by which interest groups influence the policy process. The neocorporatist
system encourages formal ties between the two. For instance, ministries
are required by law to consult with the peak associations about draft
legislation that would affect them. To fulfill this obligation, the federal
ministries have established standing advisory committees, which include
representatives of the relevant interest groups.
* Business and Industry
* Labour Unions
* The Churches
* Agriculture
* Citizens' Initiative Associations
- The
Chancellor
- The President
- Legislature
- Constitution
- Federalism
- Bundestag
- Bundesrat
- Electoral System
- Political Parties
- Extraparty Political
Forces
- Geography (lands and
capitals, climate)
- Society (population,
religion, marriage, urbanization, social structure, immigration)
- Education (elementary,
junior, senior, vocational, higher)
- Economy (the Economic
Miracle, financial system, Bundesbank, business culture)
- Politics (government,
the Chancellor, the President, parties, Bundestag)
- Mass Media (newspapers,
radio and TV)
- Armed Forces (army,
navy, air forces, police)
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